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Gene Dosage Determines the Negative Effects of Polymorphic Alleles of the P2X7 Receptor on Adenosine Triphosphate–Mediated Killing of Mycobacteria by Human Macrophages

  1. Suran L. Fernando1,
  2. Bernadette M. Saunders1,2,
  3. Ronald Sluyter3,
  4. Kristen K. Skarratt3,
  5. James S. Wiley3 and
  6. Warwick J. Britton1,2
  1. 1Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology, Newtown, and
  2. 2Discipline of Medicine, Central Clinical School, and
  3. 3Department of Medicine, Nepean Hospital, Western Clinical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
  1. Reprints or correspondence: Prof. W. J. Britton, Mycobacterial Research Laboratory, Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology, Locked Bag No. 6, Newtown, NSW 2042, Australia (wbritton{at}med.usyd.edu.au)
 
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Abstract

BackgroundStimulation of the P2X7 purinergic receptor (P2X7) in bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG)–infected human macrophages with extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) leads to pore formation and killing of mycobacteria. We examined the effect of polymorphisms in the P2X7 gene (P2X7) on the capacity of macrophages to kill mycobacteria

MethodsPolymorphisms and mutations in P2X7 were identified by both DNA sequence analysis and determination of uptake of ethidium by time-resolved flow cytometry. Macrophages from affected subjects were infected with Mycobacterium bovis BCG. Apoptosis was determined by use of Annexin V staining, and BCG growth was determined by use of quantitative mycobacterial cultures

ResultsThree new mutations were identified. Macrophages from subjects heterozygous for a polymorphism in P2X7 had a 50% reduction in uptake of ethidium and a 75% reduction in the number of apoptotic cells, compared with macrophages from wild-type (wt) subjects, after stimulation with interferon (IFN)–γ and ATP. Furthermore, after stimulation with IFN-γ and ATP, there was a reduction in BCG growth of up to ∼0.5 log10 in macrophages from single-heterozygous subjects, compared with a reduction of 1.0 log10 in macrophages from wt subjects. Interestingly, BCG-infected macrophages from compound-heterozygous subjects, for different combinations of polymorphisms in P2X7 had no uptake of ethidium, failed to undergo apoptosis, and were unable to kill mycobacteria after stimulation with IFN-γ and ATP

ConclusionsVarious polymorphisms in P2X7 abrogate IFN-γ/ATP-induced killing of mycobacteria by human macrophages and, thus, may contribute to variability in susceptibility to mycobacterial infections

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major global health problem. The World Health Organization estimates that approximately one-third of the world’s population is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis resulting in 2.2 million deaths/year [1]. Disease from M. tuberculosis in humans is most commonly caused by reactivation of dormant infection [2], and the lifetime risk of reactivation for a 25-year-old with latent TB infection is 7.3% [3]. The risk of reactivation may be at least partly explained by genetic factors, since only a minority of cases can be attributed to known causes of acquired immunosuppression, such as HIV, use of corticosteroids, aging, and use of alcohol [4]. Mendelian-inherited mutations in the genes for the interferon (IFN)–γ, interleukin (IL)–12, and signal transducer and activator of transcription–1 pathway confer increased susceptibility to severe mycobacterial infections [5, 6]. These mutations are rare, however, and do not explain the susceptibility to TB in the wider population. Such susceptibility is more likely to be attributed to polymorphisms, which, by definition, are genetic variations that occur in >1% of the population and are therefore deemed to be more common than mutations. Polymorphisms in HLA type and in the genes for vitamin D3 receptor, NRAMP1, IFN-γ promoter, and Toll-like receptor–2 have all been associated with increased susceptibility to M. tuberculosis although, individually, the attributable risk of these polymorphisms is modest [7 –11]

Macrophages play a central role during mycobacterial infection. They are the principal host cells for intracellular replication of mycobacteria, act as antigen-presenting cells during activation of lymphocytes at the sites of infection, and are responsible for killing of mycobacteria through a number of mechanisms, including generation of reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNIs) and reactive oxygen intermediates (ROIs) and, importantly, the promotion of phagolysosomal fusion [12]. We and others have shown that extracellular ATP, through the activation of the P2X7 purinergic receptor (P2X7), induces both macrophage apoptosis and killing of intracellular mycobacteria in infected human macrophages [13 –15]. P2X7 is highly expressed on human macrophages and is further up-regulated by IFN-γ [16 –18]. P2X7 receptors are ligand-gated cation channels with 2 transmembrane domains and a trimeric structure in the plasma membrane [19 –21]. Activation of P2X7 causes an immediate opening of a cation-selective channel, which undergoes dilatation within seconds to allow entry of larger cations up to the size of ethidium and Yo-Pro [19, 20, 22]. Activation of P2X7 in macrophages stimulates a number of signalling pathways, including the caspase cascade, with resultant apoptosis, and activation of phospholipase D (PLD) [23 –25]. PLD promotes phagolysosomal fusion, thereby exposing mycobacteria to destructive lysosomal enzymes [26, 27]

We have identified 3 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the coding region of the P2X7 gene (P2X7) each of which leads to loss of receptor function (figure 1). The most common is the 1513A→C polymorphism [17], and macrophages from subjects homozygous for this polymorphism are unable to kill mycobacteria after ATP treatment of infected macrophages [15]. Homozygosity for 1513C occurs in 1%–2% of the white population, whereas heterozygosity is more common, with a frequency of 15%–20% in the white population [17]. The 1729T→A and 946G→A polymorphisms in the heterozygote state have prevalences of ∼2% and ∼1.4%, respectively [28, 29]. We describe here 3 new mutations and demonstrate that subjects with a single loss-of-function polymorphism in P2X7 have reduced ATP-induced apoptosis and killing of mycobacteria. Furthermore, in macrophages from compound-heterozygous subjects, there is complete abolition of these ATP-induced events, with a phenotype equivalent to the 1513A→C homozygous subjects

Figure 1
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Figure 1

Schematic diagram of the P2X7 receptor. The position of 3 loss-of-function polymorphisms—1 within the ATP-binding site (946G→A), 1 within the ankyrin-like repeat (1513A→C ), and 1 within the trafficking domain of P2X7 (1729T→A)—are shown

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Subjects and Methods

Subject recruitment and genotyping A total of 131 adult subjects from the Centenary Institute of Cancer and Cell Biology, Sydney, and the Clinical School and Hematology Department, Nepean Hospital, Sydney, were screened for P2X7 function. Those with low-level function were subsequently genotyped for loss-of-function polymorphisms by use of primers, as described elsewhere [17, 28, 29]. Blood was collected from 18 subjects with loss-of-function polymorphisms and from 10 wild-type (wt) subjects (i.e., subjects with no detectable loss-of-function polymorphisms). Subjects provided informed consent, and the study received ethics approval from the Central Sydney Area Health Service and the University of Sydney

Human monocyte-derived macrophage cultures  Peripheral blood was used to derive fresh monocytes. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were resuspended at 1×106–2×106 cells/mL in RPMI 1640 (Sigma-Aldrich) containing 10% heat-inactivated fetal calf serum (Life Technologies) and 2 mmol/L l-glutamine (Sigma-Aldrich). Cells were incubated for 2 h in Nunc tissue-culture flasks (Nunc A/S) and washed twice to remove nonadherent cells. The adherent monocytes were cultured for 6 days in complete medium. For measurements of ATP-induced uptake of ethidium and expression of P2X7, macrophages that had been differentiated for 6 days were cultured overnight with IFN-γ (100 IU/mL; Roche) and collected by mechanical scraping. For assays of killing of mycobacteria and apoptosis, macrophages that had been differentiated for 6 days were detached and plated overnight in 96-well plates, at 1 × 105 cells/well, in antibiotic-free medium with IFN-γ (100 IU/mL), before mycobacterial infection

Measurement of ethidium influx by flow cytometry ATP-induced uptake of ethidium into IFN-γ–activated macrophages resuspended in HEPES-buffered KCl medium (10 mmol/L HEPES, 150 mmol/L KCl, 5 mmol/L d-glucose, and 1% bovine serum albumin [pH 7.5]) and ethidium (25 μmol/L; Sigma-Aldrich) at 37°C was determined as described elsewhere [28]

Immunofluorescent staining and flow cytometry Cells were stained for expression of P2X7 and major histocompatibility complex class II and analyzed by flow cytometry, as described elsewhere [15]

Killing of mycobacteria and apoptosis IFN-γ–activated macrophages were infected with BCG–green fluorescent protein [30] for 4 h at an MOI of 1 and then were washed twice to remove extracellular bacteria (day 0). On day 2, cells were pulsed with 3 mmol/L ATP for 20 min, washed, and incubated overnight. On day 3, one-half of the wells were lysed with 0.1% Triton-X for 30 min, to release viable bacilli. Serial dilutions of cell lysates were plated onto 7H11 agar and incubated for 3–4 weeks at 37°C, to determine the load of viable mycobacteria. The remaining wells were stained with phycoerythrin-conjugated Annexin V and propidium iodide, to measure apoptosis, in accordance with the manufacturer’s protocol (BD Biosciences), and were analyzed by use of a FACSCalibur flow cytometer (Becton Dickinson)

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) assay Supernatants from triplicate cultures of macrophages that had been differentiated for 2 days were collected, and TNF was measured by ELISA, in accordance with the manufacturer’s protocol (BD Biosciences)

Statistics Differences in data on uptake of ethidium, expression of P2X7, killing of mycobacteria, and apoptosis were analyzed by use of the Mann-Whitney U test. The differences were considered to be significant when P<.05

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Results

Identification of new P2X7 mutations We studied 12 subjects heterozygous for known loss-of-function SNPs (1513A→C, n=7; 1729T→A, n=1; 946G→A, n=4). Three compound-heterozygous subjects with the 946G→A/1513A→C, 946G→A/1729T→A, or 1513A→C/1729T→A SNP were identified. In addition, 3 other subjects were found to have mutations not previously reported. The first had an intronic mutation (151+1G→T) at the 5′ donor splice site of the exon 1–intron 1 boundary; this subject was also heterozygous for the 1513A→C SNP. The second subject had an exonic mutation (1747G→A) that predicts for an amino acid change (R574H) in the trafficking domain [31]; this subject was also heterozygous for the 1513A→C SNP. The third subject had an exonic mutation (699C→T) that results in a stop codon. In total, 13 single-heterozygous and 5 compound-heterozygous subjects were identified, and the functional activity of P2X7 in macrophages was compared with that in macrophages from 10 randomly selected wt subjects

Reduced expression and function of P2X 7 on heterozygous macrophages Activation of P2X7 by ATP opens a pore, and this permits P2X7 function to be measured by uptake of ethidium in IFN-γ–activated macrophages. Expression of P2X7 was measured in these macrophages by flow cytometry. To determine the effect of the identified polymorphisms in P2X7 on pore formation, ATP-induced uptake of ethidium and expression of P2X7 were measured in IFN-γ–activated macrophages. Compared with those from wt subjects, macrophages from single-heterozygous subjects had reduced ATP-induced uptake of ethidium and expression of P2X7 (table 1 and figure 2). Furthermore, both uptake of ethidium and expression of P2X7 were significantly lower in macrophages from compound-heterozygous subjects than in macrophages from both single-heterozygous and wt subjects (table 1)

Figure 2
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Figure 2

ATP-induced uptake of ethidium in macrophages from wild-type (wt) single-heterozygous, and compound-heterozygous subjects. Human macrophages (2×106) were incubated in HEPES-buffered KCl at 37°C. Ethidium bromide (25 μmol/L) was added, followed 40 s later by ATP (1 mmol/L). The mean channel of cell-associated fluorescence intensity was measured at 5-s intervals. A A wt subject (wt/wt), a 1513A→C single-heterozygous subject (wt/1513C), and a 155+1G→T/1513A→C compound-heterozygous subject (155+1T/1513C). B A wt subject (wt/wt) 946G→A (wt/946A) and 1729T→A (wt/1729A) single-heterozygous subjects, and a 946G→A/1729T→A (946A/1729A) compound-heterozygous subject. C A wt subject (wt/wt) and 699C→T (699T) and 946 G→A (946A) single-heterozygous subjects

Figure 3
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Figure 3

ATP-induced apoptosis of macrophages from wild-type (wt) single-heterozygous, and compound-heterozygous subjects. Human macrophages were infected for 48 h. Cells were then pulsed for 20 min with 3 mmol/L ATP, washed, and incubated for a further 16 h. Cells were stained with Annexin V and propidium iodide (PI). Cells were identified as early apoptotic (Annexin+/PI−), late-stage apoptotic (Annexin+/PI+), or necrotic (Annexin−/PI+). Each data point represents the percentage of apoptotic cells (early and late stage) in ATP-pulsed cultures minus non–ATP-pulsed cultures, for a single subject tested 1–3 times. Differences between macrophages from wt subjects and those from single-heterozygous subjects, macrophages from wt subjects and those from compound-heterozygous subjects, and macrophages from single-heterozygous subjects and those from compound-heterozygous subjects were significant at *P<.001 (Mann-Whitney U test). The horizontal bar denotes the median

Figure 4
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Figure 4

ATP-induced killing of bacille Calmette-Guérin within human macrophages from wild-type (wt) single-heterozygous, and compound-heterozygous subjects. Human macrophages were infected for 48 h. Cells were then pulsed for 20 min with 3 mmol/L ATP, washed, and incubated for a further 16 h. Cells were lysed, and viable bacilli were enumerated by quantitative microbiology. Each data point represents the mean log reduction in viable bacilli in triplicate ATP-pulsed cultures minus triplicate non-ATP-pulsed cultures, for a single subject tested 1–3 times. Differences between macrophages from wt subjects and those from single-heterozygous subjects, macrophages from wt subjects and those from compound-heterozygous subjects, and macrophages from single-heterozygous subjects and those from compound-heterozygous subjects were significant at *P<.001 (Mann-Whitney U test). The horizontal bar denotes the median

Table 1
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Table 1

ATP-induced uptake of ethidium and expression of P2X7 and HLA-DR on macrophages

Normal expression of HLA class II and TNF production in heterozygous infected macrophages The activation status of macrophages during BCG infection was determined by the level of expression of HLA class II and by TNF production. Polymorphisms leading to loss of P2X7 function did not affect the expression of HLA class II molecules—a similar level of expression of HLA-DR on IFN-γ–treated macrophages was observed in all 3 subjects (table 1). Furthermore, BCG infection increased TNF production by all macrophages, regardless of P2X7 phenotype. Although the level of TNF produced varied among subjects, no significant difference was seen in TNF production between macrophages from wt, single-heterozygous, and compound-heterozygous groups (data not shown)

Reduced apoptosis in ATP-pulsed heterozygous macrophages  ATP-induced apoptosis, but not H2O2-induced necrosis, of mycobacteria-infected macrophages leads to the death of intracellular bacilli [32]. We investigated whether the loss-of-function polymorphisms in P2X7 affected the ability of macrophages to kill mycobacteria. Adherent monocyte-derived macrophages were infected with Mycobacterium bovis BCG for 48 h and were then pulsed with ATP for 20 min. After removal of ATP and overnight incubation, the percentage of apoptotic cells was determined. In macrophages from wt subjects, stimulation with ATP led to an increase in apoptosis, compared with that in unstimulated macrophages (range, 10.1%–32.4%; median, 17.87%) (figure 3). Macrophages from single-heterozygous subjects had a significant reduction in apoptosis (range, 2.2%–9.8%; median, 4.70%), compared with those from wt subjects (P < .001), and the level of apoptosis was even further reduced in macrophages from compound-heterozygous subjects (range, 0%–6.4%; median, 1.24%) (P<.001)

Reduced ATP-mediated killing of mycobacteria in heterozygous macrophages We have previously shown that treatment of infected wt macrophages with ATP was associated with a reduction in mycobacterial load of up to 90% [15]. Macrophages from single-heterozygous subjects had a significant impairment in killing of mycobacteria, with a 56% reduction in bacterial viability after stimulation with ATP (P<.001) (figure 4). Stimulation with ATP of macrophages from compound-heterozygous subjects did not induce any reduction in bacterial viability, compared with that in unstimulated macrophages (P<.001, for macrophages from compound-heterozygous subjects vs. those from wt subjects and for macrophages from compound-heterozygous subjects vs. those from single-heterozygous subjects)

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Discussion

The present study has provided strong evidence that a variety of genetic polymorphisms in P2X7 impair the ability of macrophages to kill mycobacteria. Macrophages from subjects homozygous for the 1513A→C polymorphism in P2X7 fail to exhibit ATP-induced killing of BCG [15]. The homozygous state is rare, but we have identified individuals who are heterozygous for P2X7 loss-of-function polymorphisms or mutations, and these individuals also showed a partial impairment of ATP-mediated killing of mycobacteria. Macrophages from all but 2 subjects with 1 demonstrable loss-of-function SNP in P2X7 had some, albeit reduced, ATP-induced apoptosis and ATP-mediated killing of BCG. Macrophages from compound-heterozygous subjects, however, were completely unable to kill mycobacteria by ATP and were insensitive to the apoptosis-inducing effect of ATP, regardless of the combination of polymorphisms involved. Thus, the effect of compound heterozygosity is additive and gives rise to a failure of P2X7 function identical to that observed in 1513A→C homozygosity [15]

P2X7-mediated killing of BCG involves a transient increase in cytosolic calcium, resulting in the activation of phospholipase D, phospholipase A2, and mitogen-activated protein kinase and the subsequent promotion of phagolysosomal fusion [14, 33]. ATP-mediated killing of mycobacteria by macrophages is also independent of ROI, RNI, NRAMP1, Fas ligation, and complement-mediated lysis [13]. Infection of macrophages with M. tuberculosis results in increased levels of ATP within the extracellular medium [34]. The direct stimulation of macrophages with lipopolysaccharide or endotoxin also triggers release of ATP [35, 36]. The concentration of ATP released into the immunological synapse between infected macrophages and T cells within a granuloma has not been determined but may be sufficient to stimulate killing of mycobacteria by human macrophages in vivo

There is emerging evidence that certain genetic polymorphisms provide an increased risk of TB. We have identified several SNPs in different regions of P2X7. These SNPs lie within domains of the gene that affect protein anchoring (1513A→C) [17], receptor trafficking (1729T→A) [28], and ATP binding (946G→A) [29]. The newly identified 1747G→A mutation (R574H), like the 1729T→A SNP, also lies within a previously identified trafficking domain [31]. The other 2 newly identified mutations (155+1G→T and 699C→T) abolish mRNA synthesis and prevent P2X7 protein synthesis. One common feature of these loss-of-function polymorphisms is that they lead to reduced expression of receptors on the macrophage surface, which may limit the response of P2X7 to ATP. Furthermore, this reduction appears to be additive—macrophages from compound-heterozygous subjects have almost no expression of P2X7—and this may explain the ablation of ATP responsiveness in macrophages from compound-heterozygous subjects. Two subjects with a single identified loss-of-function polymorphism had a phenotype identical to that of compound-heterozygous subjects. This suggests that the effect of their loss-of-function polymorphism is completely ablative or that they may have another, as yet unidentified loss-of-function polymorphism or mutation

The overall impact of SNPs on susceptibility to TB in a population depends on the gene frequency for that allele in the population studied. The cumulative frequency of these P2X7 polymorphisms may be sufficiently high to influence susceptibility to clinical TB in a particular population. To date, the identified genetic associations with TB have all been modest in effect [7 –11]. Genetic susceptibility to TB is, however, likely to be polygenic in nature, in which the balance between the effects of susceptibility and protective genes may act in conjunction with environmental factors to determine the risk of active disease. A study of NRAMP polymorphisms in a Gambian population showed that the presence of 2 susceptibility alleles at this locus conveyed an additive effect on the risk of disease [8]. The effect of having >1 nonfunctional P2X7 SNP may not only be additive in reducing ATP-induced intracellular killing of mycobacteria but may also confer an additive risk of development of clinical TB after infection

Another study examined the association of 5 SNPs in the putative promoter region upstream of exon 1 of P2X7 along with the 1513A→C SNP (which we previously identified [17]), with the development of pulmonary TB in Gambians. A significant protective effect against TB was found for 1 SNP in the promoter region but not for the 1513A→C SNP in that population. The importance of individual SNPs within genes may vary markedly between different racial groups. For example, an additive risk of pulmonary TB was identified for SNPs in NRAMP1 in a Gambian population [8], but no such susceptibility was found in a linkage study in Brazil [37]. Furthermore, polymorphisms in the gene for mannose-binding lectin were associated with protection against TB in South African [38] and Gambian [39] populations but were associated with increased susceptibility to TB in a southern Indian population [40]. The present study has demonstrated that genetic variation in P2X7 is associated with significant differences in the capacity of human macrophages to kill mycobacteria. Further study of the association of these P2X7 polymorphisms and the development of clinical TB in different populations is warranted

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Acknowledgments

We thank Nathan Field, for his technical assistance, and Dr. Stephen Fuller, for collection of blood from some subjects. We also thank all the subjects who donated blood for this study

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Footnotes

  • Financial support: National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (scholarship to S.L.F.); Community Health Anti-Tuberculosis Association; Cecilia Kilkeary Foundation; New South Wales Department of Health

  • Received December 5, 2004.
  • Accepted February 5, 2005.
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  1. J Infect Dis. (2005) 192 (1): 149-155. doi: 10.1086/430622
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